The grammar of the Veda (to turn from the contents to the structure of the work) is important in many respects. The difference between it and the grammar of the epic poems would be sufficient of itself to fix the distance between these two periods of language and literature. Many words have preserved in these early hymns a more primitive form, and therefore agree more closely with cognate words in Greek or Latin. Night, for instance, in the later Sanskrit is nisâ, which is a form peculiarly Sanskritic, and agrees in its derivation neither with nox nor with νξ. The Vaidik nas or nak, night, is as near to Latin as can be. Thus mouse in the common Sanskrit is mûshas or mûshikâ, both derivative forms if compared with the Latin mus, muris. The Vaidik Sanskrit has preserved the same primitive noun in the plural mûsh-as = Lat. mures. There are other words in the Veda which were lost altogether in the later Sanskrit, while they were preserved in Greek and Latin. Dyaus, sky, does not occur as a masculine in the ordinary Sanskrit; it occurs in the Veda, and thus bears witness to the early Aryan worship of Dyaus, the Greek Zeús. Ushas, dawn, again in the later Sanskrit is neuter. In the Veda it is feminine; and even the secondary Vaidik form Ushâsâ is proved to be of high antiquity by the nearly corresponding Latin form Aurora. Declension and conjugation are richer in forms and more unsettled in their usage. It was a curious fact, for instance, that no subjunctive mood existed in the common Sanskrit. The Greeks and Romans had it, and even the language of the Avesta showed clear traces of it. There could be no doubt that the Sanskrit also once possessed this mood, and at last it was discovered in the hymns of the Rig-veda. Discoveries of this kind may seem trifling, but they are as delightful to the grammarian as the appearance of a star, long expected and calculated, is to the astronomer. They prove that there is natural order in language, and that by a careful induction laws can be established which enable us to guess with great probability either at the form or meaning of words where but scanty fragments of the tongue itself have come down to us.
October, 1853.
THE ZEND-AVESTA
By means of laws like that of the Correspondence of Letters, discovered by Rask and Grimm, it has been possible to determine the exact form of words in Gothic, in cases where no trace of them occurred in the literary documents of the Gothic nation. Single words which were not to be found in Ulfilas have been recovered by applying certain laws to their corresponding forms in Latin or Old High-German, and thus retranslating them into Gothic. But a much greater conquest was achieved in Persia. Here comparative philology has actually had to create and reanimate all the materials of language on which it was afterwards to work. Little was known of the language of Persia and Media previous to the Shahnameh of Firdusi, composed about 1000 a.d., and it is due entirely to the inductive method of comparative philology that we have now before us contemporaneous documents of three periods of Persian language, deciphered, translated, and explained. We have the language of the Zoroastrians, the language of the Achæmenians, and the language of the Sassanians, which represent the history of the Persian tongue in three successive periodsall now rendered intelligible by the aid of comparative philology, while but fifty years ago their very name and existence were questioned.
The labours of Anquetil Duperron, who first translated the Zend-Avesta, were those of a bold adventurernot of a scholar. Rask was the first who, with the materials collected by Duperron and himself, analysed the language of the Avesta scientifically. He proved
4
Basilius, De legendis Græc. libris, c. v. Ε μν ον στ τις οκειτης πρς λλλους τος λγοις, προργου ν μν ατν γνσις γνοιτο. ε δ μ, λλ το γε παραλληλα θντας καταμαθεν τ διφορον, ο μικρν ες βεβαωσις βελτονος.
5
See Burnouf, 'Lotus de la bonne Loi,' Appendice, No. x. § 4.
6
Τν χριστν πρωττοκον το Θεο εναι διδχθημεν, κα προεμηνσαμεν Λγον ντα, ο πν γνος νθρπων μετσχε κα ο μετ Λγου βισαντες χριστιανο εσι, κν θεοι νομσθησαν, οον ν λλησι μν Σωκρτης κα Ηρκλετος κα ο μοοι ατος, ν βαρβροις δ βραμ κα Ανανας κα ΑϚαρας κα Μισαλ κα λας κα λλοι πολλο, ν τς πρξετς τ νματα καταλγειν μακρν εναι πιστμενοι, τανν παραιτομεθα. στε κα ο προγενμενοι νευ Λδγου βισαντες, χρηστοι κα.
7
Clem. Alex. Strom, lib. I, cap. v, § 28. Πντων μν γρ ατιος τν καλν θες, λλ τν μν κατ προηγομενον, ς τς τε διαθκης τς παλαις κα τς νας, τν δ κατ πακολοθημα, ς τς φιλοσοφας τχα δ κα προηγουμνως τος λλησιν δθη ττε πρν τν κριον καλσαι κα τος λληυας. παιδαγγει γρ κα ατ τ λληνικν ς νμος τος βραους ες Χριστν. προπαρασκευξει τονυν φιλοσοφα προοδοποιοσα τν π Χριστο τελειομενον.
8
Strom, lib. VI, cap. V, § 42. Πρς δ κα τι ατς θες μφον ταν διαθκαιν χορηγς, κα τς λληνικς φιλοσοφας δοτρ τος λλησιν, δ ς παντοκρτωρ παρ λλησι δοξζεται, παρστησεν, δλον δ κνθδε.
9
Some of the points touched upon in this Lecture have been more fully treated in my 'History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature.' As the second edition of this work has been out of print for several years, I have here quoted a few passages from it in full.
10
'In the sciences of law and society, old means not old in chronology, but in structure: that is most archaic which lies nearest to the beginning of human progress considered as a development, and that is most modern which is farthest removed from that beginning.'J. F. McLennan, 'Primitive Marriage,' p. 8.
10
.
12
'History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature,' p. 449.
13
'History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature,' second edition, p. 219 seq.
14
'Tat Savitur varenyam bhargo devasya dhîmahi, dhiyo yo nah prakodayât.'Colebrooke, 'Miscellaneous Essays,' i. 30. Many passages bearing on this subject have been collected by Dr. Muir in the third volume of his 'Sanskrit Texts,' p. 114 seq.
15
Mommsen, 'Inscriptiones Helveticae,' 40. Becker, 'Die inschriftlichen Überreste der Keltischen Sprache,' in 'Beiträge zur Vergleichenden Sprachforschung,' vol. iii. p. 341. Lucau, Phars. 1, 445, 'horrensque feris altaribus Hesus.'
16
Cf. G. Bühler, 'Über Parjanya,' in Benfey's 'Orient und Occident,' vol. i. p. 214.
17
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 569.
18
A last verse is added, which entirely spoils the poetical beauty and the whole character of the hymn. Its later origin seems to have struck even native critics, for the author of the Pada text did not receive it. 'O Pragâpati, no other than thou hast embraced all these created things; may what we desired when we called on thee, be granted to us, may we be lords of riches.'
19
I subjoin for some of the hymns here translated, the translation of the late Professor Wilson, in order to show what kind of difference there is between the traditional rendering of the Vedic hymns, as adopted by him, and their interpretation according to the rules of modern scholarship:
1. We ever offer fitting praise to the mighty Indra, in the dwelling of the worshipper, by which he (the deity) has quickly acquired riches, as (a thief) hastily carries (off the property) of the sleeping. Praise ill expressed is not valued among the munificent.
2. Thou, Indra, art the giver of horses, of cattle, of barley, the master and protector of wealth, the foremost in liberality, (the being) of many days; thou disappointest not desires (addressed to thee); thou art a friend to our friends: such an Indra we praise.
3. Wise and resplendent Indra, the achiever of great deeds, the riches that are spread around are known to be thine: having collected them, victor (over thy enemies), bring them to us: disappoint not the expectation of the worshipper who trusts in thee.
4. Propitiated by these offerings, by these libations, dispel poverty with cattle and horses: may we, subduing our adversary, and relieved from enemies by Indra, (pleased) by our libations, enjoy together abundant food.
5. Indra, may we become possessed of riches, and of food; and with energies agreeable to many, and shining around, may we prosper through thy divine favour, the source of prowess, of cattle, and of horses.
6. Those who were thy allies, (the Maruts,) brought thee joy: protector of the pious, those libations and oblations (that were offered thee on slaying Vritra), yielded thee delight, when thou, unimpeded by foes, didst destroy the ten thousand obstacles opposed to him who praised thee and offered thee libations.
7. Humiliator (of adversaries), thou goest from battle to battle, and destroyest by thy might city after city: with thy foe-prostrating associate, (the thunderbolt,) thou, Indra, didst slay afar off the deceiver named Namuki.
8. Thou hast slain Karaga and Parnaya with thy bright gleaming spear, in the cause of Atithigva: unaided, thou didst demolish the hundred cities of Vagrida, when besieged by Rigisvan.
9. Thou, renowned Indra, overthrewest by thy not-to-be-overtaken chariot-wheel, the twenty kings of men, who had come against Susravas, unaided, and their sixty thousand and ninety and nine followers.