So mapping is one of the affective ways to organize your ideas. To make a map use a whole sheet of paper, and write your topic in the middle, with a circle around it. Then put the next idea in a circle above or below your topic, and connect the circles with lines. The lines show that the two ideas are related.
4. Choose one topic from each of three groups. Brainstorm one of the topics (list as many ideas as you can in five minutes), make pattern notes to the second topic (use any resources you can) and map the third topic. Share your notes with partners.
Pre-Writing: Using the Right Ability
So far we have seen how important it is to interpret the question carefully, because it tells us the structure our essay should adopt for us to deal relevantly with all the issues it raises. With this clear in our mind we can avoid taking masses of irrelevant notes, which are likely to find their way into our essays, making them irrelevant, shapeless and confusing.
There is one more important thing to take into account: the range of abilities we are expected to use. This is normally made clear through what is known as instructional verbs. Given below is a list of short definitions of those most frequently found in questions, which should help you avoid the common problems that arise when you overlook or misinterpret them.
Analyse separate an argument, a theory, or a claim into its elements or component parts; to trace the causes of a particular event; to reveal the general principles underlying phenomena.
Compare look for similarities and differences between two or more things, problems or arguments. Perhaps, although not always, reach a conclusion about which you think is preferable.
Contrast set in opposition to each other two or more things, problems or arguments in order to identify clearly their differences and their individual characteristics.
Criticise identify the weaknesses of certain theories, opinions or claims, and give your judgement about their merit. Support your judgements with a discussion of the evidence and the reasoning involved.
Define outline the precise meaning of a word or phrase. In some cases it may be necessary or desirable to examine different possible, or often used, definitions.
Describe give a detailed or graphic account, keeping to the facts or to the impressions that an event had upon you. In history this entails giving a narrative account of the events in the time sequence they occurred.
Discuss investigate or examine by argument; sift through the arguments and the evidence used to support them, giving reasons for and against both sides; examine the implications. It means playing devils advocate by arguing not just for the side of the argument that you support, but for the side with which you may have little sympathy.
Evaluate make an appraisal of the worth of something, an argument or a set of beliefs, in the light of their truth or usefulness. This does involve making your own value judgements, but not just naked opinion: they must be backed up by argument and justification.
Explain make plain; interpret and account for the occurrence of a particular event by giving the causes. Unlike the verb to describe, this does not mean that it is sufficient to describe what happened by giving a narrative of the events. To explain an event is to give the reasons why it occurred, usually involving an analysis of the causes.
Illustrate explain or clarify something by the use of diagrams, figures or concrete examples.
Interpret reveal what you believe to be the meaning or significance of something; to make sense of something that might otherwise be unclear, or about which there may be more than one opinion. So usually this involves giving your own judgement.
Justify show adequate grounds for a decision or a conclusion by supporting it with sufficient evidence and argument; answer the main objections that are likely to be made to it.
Outline give the main features or the general principles of a subject, omitting minor details and emphasising its structure and arrangement.
Relate this usually means one of two things. In some questions it means narrate a sequence of events outline the story of a particular incident. Alternatively, it can mean show how certain things are connected or affect each other, or show to what extent they are alike.
Review examine closely a subject or a case that has been put forward for a certain proposal or argument. Usually, although not always, this means concluding with your own judgement as to the strength of the case. However, if it involves examining just a subject or a topic, and not an argument or a proposal, it will mean just examining in some detail all the aspects of the topic.
State outline briefly and clearly the facts of the situation or a side of an argument. This doesnt call for argument or discussion, just the presentation of the facts or the arguments. Equally it doesnt call for a judgement from you, just reportage.
Summarise give a clear and concise account of the principal points of a problem or an argument, omitting the details, evidence and examples that may have been given to support the argument or illustrate the problem.
Trace outline the stages in the development of a particular issue or the history of a topic.
5. Gather together as many research papers or articles you have ever read or touched upon for your course as you can, at least enough to give you a representative sample.
For each paper, list the questions in three columns: those that ask for a descriptive and factual answer (the what, how and describe type of question); those that ask for an analytical answer (the outline, analyse, compare and contrast type of question); and those that ask you for a discussion of the issues (the criticise, evaluate and discuss type of question).
Once youve done this, calculate the percentage of each type of question on each paper.
STAGE 2
Research
We have now reached the point where we can confidently set about our research. Weve interpreted the meaning and implications of the question, in the course of which weve analysed the key concepts involved. From there weve brainstormed the question using our interpretation as our key structure. As a result, we now know two things: what questions we want answered from our research; and what we already know about the topic.
There are three main key skills in research: reading, note-taking and organisation.
Its important to read purposefully: to be clear about why were reading a particular passage so that we can select the most appropriate reading strategy. Many of us get into the habit of reading every passage word-forword, regardless of our purpose in reading it, when in fact it might be more efficient to skim or scan it. Adopting a more flexible approach to our reading in this way frees up more of our time, so that we can read around our subject and take on board more ideas and information.
It also gives us more time to process the ideas. We will see how important this is if we are to avoid becoming just surface-level processors, reading passively without analysing and structuring what we read, or criticising and evaluating the arguments presented. We will examine the techniques involved in analysing a passage to extract its structure, so that we can recall the arguments, ideas and evidence more effectively. We will also learn the different ways we can improve our ability to criticise and evaluate the arguments we read. In this way we can become deep-level processors, actively processing what we read and generating more of our own ideas.
It also gives us more time to process the ideas. We will see how important this is if we are to avoid becoming just surface-level processors, reading passively without analysing and structuring what we read, or criticising and evaluating the arguments presented. We will examine the techniques involved in analysing a passage to extract its structure, so that we can recall the arguments, ideas and evidence more effectively. We will also learn the different ways we can improve our ability to criticise and evaluate the arguments we read. In this way we can become deep-level processors, actively processing what we read and generating more of our own ideas.
But before you hit the books, a warning! Its all too easy to pick up a pile of books that appear vaguely useful and browse among them. This might be enjoyable, and you might learn something, but it will hardly help you get your essay written. Now that youve interpreted the question and youve brainstormed the issues, you have a number of questions and topics you want to pursue. You are now in a position to ask clear questions as you read the books and the other materials youve decided to use in your research.
Nevertheless, before you begin you need to pin down exactly the sections of each book that are relevant to your research. Very few of the books you use will you read from cover to cover. With this in mind, you need to consult the contents and index pages in order to locate those pages that deal with the questions and issues youre interested in.
To ensure that youre able to do deep-level processing, it may be necessary to accept that you need to do two or three readings of the text, particularly if it is technical and closely argued.
Reading for comprehension
In your first reading you might aim just for the lower ability range, for comprehension, just to understand the authors arguments. It may be a subject youve never read about before, or it may include a number of unfamiliar technical terms that you need to think about carefully each time they are used.
Reading for analysis and structure
In the next reading you should be able to analyse the passage into sections and subsections, so that you can see how youre going to organise it in your notes. If the text is not too difficult you may be able to accomplish both of these tasks (comprehension and analysis) in one reading, but always err on the cautious side, dont rush it. Remember, now that youve identified just those few pages that you have to read, rather than the whole book, you can spend more time processing the ideas well.
Reading for criticism and evaluation
The third reading involves criticising and evaluating your authors arguments. Its clear that in this and the second reading our processing is a lot more active. While in the second were analysing the passage to take out the structure, in this, the third, were maintaining a dialogue with the authors, through which were able to criticise and evaluate their arguments. To help you in this, keep the following sorts of questions in mind as you read.
Are the arguments consistent or are they contradictory?
Are they relevant (i.e. do the authors use arguments they know youll agree with, but which are not relevant to the point theyre making)?
Do they use the same words to mean different things at different stages of the argument (whats known as the fallacy of equivocation)?
Are there underlying assumptions that they havent justified?
Can you detect bias in the argument?
Do they favour one side of the argument, giving little attention to the side for which they seem to have least sympathy? For example, do they give only those reasons that support their case, omitting those that dont (the fallacy of special pleading)?
Is the evidence they use relevant?
Is it strong enough to support their arguments?
Do they use untypical examples, which they know you will have to agree with, in order to support a difficult or extreme case (whats known as the fallacy of the straw man)?
Do they draw conclusions from statistics and examples which cant adequately support them?
This sounds like a lot to remember, and it is, so dont try to carry this list along with you as you read. Just remind yourself of it before you begin to criticise and evaluate the text. Having done this two or three times you will find more and more of it sticks and you wont need reminding. Then, after youve finished the passage, go through the list again and check with what you can recall of the text. These are the sort of questions you will be asking in Stage 5 (Revision) about your own essay before you hand it in. So its a good idea to develop your skills by practising on somebody else first.
One last caution dont rush into this. You will have to give yourself some breathing space between the second reading and this final evaluative reading. Your mind will need sufficient time to process all the material, preferably overnight, in order for you to see the issues clearly and objectively. If you were to attempt to criticise and evaluate the authors ideas straight after reading them for the structure, your own ideas would be so assimilated into the authors, that you would be left with no room to criticise and assess them. You would probably find very little to disagree with the author about.
Many of the same issues resurface when we consider note-taking. As with reading, we will see that its important not to tie ourselves to one strategy of note-taking irrespective of the job we have to do. We will see that for different forms of processing there are the most appropriate strategies of note-taking: linear notes for analysis and structure, and pattern notes for criticism and evaluation. Cultivating flexibility in our pattern of study helps us choose the most effective strategy and, as a result, get the most out of our intellectual abilities.
But our problems in note-taking dont end there. The best notes help us structure our own thoughts, so we can recall and use them quickly and accurately, particularly under timed conditions. In this lie many of the most common problems in note-taking, particularly the habit of taking too many notes that obscure the structure, making it difficult to recall. We will exam ways of avoiding this by creating clear uncluttered notes that help us recall even the most complex structures accurately. Given this, and the simple techniques of consolidating notes, we will see how revision for the exam can become a more manageable, less daunting task.
Finally, if our notes are going to help us recall the ideas, arguments and evidence we read, as well as help us to criticise and evaluate an authors arguments, they must be a reflection of our own thinking. We will examine the reasons why many students find it difficult to have ideas of their own, when they read and take notes from their sources, and how this affects their concentration while they work.
As weve already discovered, our aim here is to identify and extract the hierarchy of ideas, a process which involves selecting and rejecting material according to its relevance and importance. Although by now this sounds obvious, its surprising how many students neglect it or just do it badly. As with most study skills, few of us are ever shown how best to structure our thoughts on paper. Yet there are simple systems we can all learn. Some students never get beyond the list of isolated points, devoid of all structure. Or, worse still, they rely on the endless sequence of descriptive paragraphs, in which a structure hides buried beneath a plethora of words. This makes it difficult to process ideas even at the simplest level.