Many scholars considered the Huns a model of pure nomads. But new archaeological materials and a careful study of Han (Chinese) written sources showed that not only the Huns, but also their ancestors built fortified cities. After the Hunish state split, it was the Western Huns under the pressure of the Eastern, that is, the ancestors of the Mongols, in the II century BC. e. moved west with their religion and after mixing with the Scythian tribes (female Amazonian priestly communities, the Amazonian from the Greek breastless, removed one womans breast so that she could better fight and kill the enemy, only after that she could get married) and the Ugrian population in the second half of the 4th century became known in European historiography as the Huns. Following them, during another great migration of peoples in the early Middle Ages, various peoples descended from the same regions from the crossbreeding of Indo-Europeans, Indo-Iranians, Iranians with local Finnish tribes: Kipchaks (Polovtsy) from Altai and a conglomerate of other ethnic groups named in the VI century the Chinese tyukyu, and the Europeans Turki. For many millennia, nomadic life has proven to be the most stable. He provided tremendous military advantages. The nomadic world must be seen as something fluid. Unlike settled peoples, the nomadic people could easily get away from the blow of the enemy army. For nomads, its just their way of life. For the enemy army, moving across the steppe without settlements and the availability of agriculture is a problem. The nomadic world, based entirely on the principle of nomadism, is adapted to overcome land spaces. Of course, there were clashes between sedentary and nomadic peoples, which was reflected in the Bible in the conflict between Abel and Cain. Nomads could not exist without a settled population, they needed clothes, weapons, and these are the results of the labor of farmers and artisans, that is, a settled population.
At the first alarm, the nomads threw everything, and women, children and the elderly were taken in wagons, later they tried to leave them protected by reliable fortifications, if possible. Such a way of life was preserved among the peoples of the southern Russian steppes, who led a nomadic and semi-nomadic way of life, and after a thousand years, of which Batu organized detachments along the border strips to protect the borders. They were called the Turkic word Cossack. One of the first references to the term Cossack in Muslim written sources is found in an anonymous Turkic-Arabic dictionary, probably compiled in Egypt, known from the manuscript of 1245 with the meaning homeless, homeless, wanderer, exile. It is known that until Catherine II, correspondence with the Cossacks was conducted in Turkic (Tatar), that is, in their official language, as evidenced by letters preserved in the archives.
The word Cossack existed in the Russian language for a long time and was a borrowing from the Turkic languages, where it had several meanings: free, independent man, tramp, robber, military servant of the feudal lord. The original meaning of the word in Russian soil was employee, employee. Then the word Cossack began to mean soldiers serving on the outskirts of the state, the first mention of Cossacks in Russian chronicles dates back to 1444. Here are also some Cossack words of Turkic origin with their original meaning: ataman appointed; hat hat; bashlyk headline; esaul the chief; bunchuk a long shaft with a ball or a tip, locks of horse hair and tassels, a sign of power.
This proves the initial settlement of fugitive serf lands, where Turkic peoples already lived Tatars, Bashkirs, Kazakhs, Chuvashs, Turks and others. Nogayka (Nagayka) from the Turkic people Nogais. Koshevoi is the head of the military command in the Zaporizhzhya Sich (the Sich located beyond the thresholds), which was called a cat from the Turkic language construction on one axis of buildings facing each other and mirroring each other, subsequently military camp. Sich from the Türkic language elected, Sichovaya Rada (from the glory. Council) the combined arms meeting, the supreme body in the Zaporizhzhya Sich, elected the military foreman (from the glory. Senior) and resolved the most important issues.
Cossacks became mainly fugitive serfs, who fled from their owners landowners. Cossacks were the main organized force in the peasant wars of the 1618 centuries. (uprisings led by Razin, Bulavin, Pugachev, etc.). This caused, on the one hand, the desire of the tsarist government to eliminate the Cossack freemen, on the other hand, it was very tempting to contain these armed people as troops to protect the borders, ensuring their maintenance at the expense of those lands that joined the Russian state. Three times in government circles in Russia there was a question about the elimination of the Cossacks. But the tsarist government decided to bribe the Cossacks, giving him land, various privileges and privileges. In the 18th early 20th centuries Cossacks a military estate, which could include people of different nationalities: Russians, Ukrainians, Tatars, Bashkirs, Germans, etc. Tsarism implemented a system of measures to turn the Cossacks into an estate that was in the service of the state to protect it. Cossacks were widely used as punitive and police forces against popular uprisings.
The origin of modern Azerbaijanis (in Azeri azərbaycanlılar, can be translated as people living near the Caspian: Xəzər (Caspian, Caspian Sea, goes back to the word Khazar) ancient ethnic groups of the East Caucasus (Albanians, Indians, Caspians and etc.) and penetrated here from the 7th century BC to the 15th century A.D., the Scythians, Cimmerians, Bulgarian-Hun, Khazar, Iranian and Turkic-Mongolian elements.
Ethnogenesis, the initial stages of the formation of the Chuvash people are among the most interesting, but also very complex scientific problems, which still have many polemical aspects. Today, solid scientific literature has been formed on the origin and ethnic history of the Chuvashs. At different times, the most controversial theories of the origin of the Chuvash were put forward. Some believe that their ancestors are the Khazars, others are the Finno-Ugrians, others are the ancient Avars, fourth are the Volga Bulgars, etc. Nikolaev in the book The History of the Chuvash Ancestors writes (p. 2325): The inscriptions made in Arabic script on numerous stone gravestones and other monuments left by the Bulgars and Savirs living in the Volga-Kama in the VIII XV centuries, historians and linguists read in the Chuvash language. It is established that the Bulgarian dialect was the historical predecessor of the modern Chuvash language [Klyashtorny SG, Sultanov TI, p. 54]. Speakers of the Hunnic language, one of the Turkic languages (or rather, Praturkic), it is considered to be Chuvash. Bulgarian tribes: Utigurs, Kutigurs, Onogurs, Saragurs, Savirs, etc., were one of the main components of the Iranian Union.The speakers of the Turkic language, which became the ancestor of the Chuvash language, were pushed out of Asia by Europe as a wave of resettlement of peoples.
Subsequently, this Turkic-speaking community fell into two languages Bulgarian and Khazar [Gumilev L.N. Kn. 1, p. 327]. The Türkic language in the modern sense has spread as an international and commonly used (modern Tatar) only in the 11th century thanks to the Kipchaks (Polovtsy). Before this, ethnic groups spoke at home in languages that did not reach us, but knew the ancient Turkic language of the military authorities [Gumilev L.N. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe, p. 47]. From the language of the Khazar tribe, the word that served as the name of the fortress Sarkel (Sarig-kil> Sarkil> Sarkel) was preserved. Gumilev L.N. translates this word as white house. Turkic, Finno-Ugric and Slavic languages do not know anything similar to this word [Gumilev L.N. From Russia to Russia, p. thirty]. This beautiful fortress was designed and built by Byzantine architects, among other things, from red burnt brick. Sarkel is, in general, the Old-Chuvash word and is understood as a beautiful house. That is, rubbish is not translated literally yellow, just like the Russian red girl means not a red girl, but a beautiful girl. Similarly, in the Chuvash language: saraher does not literally mean yellow girl, but is understood as beautiful girl, moreover, rather blonde or red, but not brunette. The word sarkel means beautiful (white) house. The Chuvash people put in the concept of home more than just the word hut, because they call the house pürt, surt, and when they say keel (-kel) they mean their native house, native land, native village, homeland. Thus, the Chuvash people put the same meaning in the word Sarkel as the Russians when they say, as in the famous song, Im in Russia, I want to go home or simply I am going home ie without being tied to a specific type of object a house, an apartment, a hut, a palace, a homeland, a courtyard, fenced and with buildings, a native village, or simply ashes. Theophanes the Confessor (VIII century A.D.) refers to the Khazars as Scythians: This year, Leo Vasileva married Konstantins son to the daughter of Hagan, the Scythian ruler, converting her to Christianity and calling her Irina (before her baptism her name was Chichak) [Chichurov I. S., p. 68;. Zakiev MZ]. Chichak (check) in Chuvash means flower. This name was also found among the Chuvash in the 20th century.
Hunno-Bulgarians, Huno-Savirs (as they were called at the end of the ancient period and in the early Middle Ages, Byzantine and other historians their contemporaries) and the Khazars branches of the disintegrated Hunish state. Cheshi, Soars (Savirs), Bulgarian tribes that made up the Cheshi tribal union, even before the 7th century BC. lived in the Hunnic Federation of Peoples, which included the Syanbians (the ancient Mongol tribes Khalkhi) [Nikolaev V.V.]. The Bulgarian group of Turkic languages was distinguished by rotacism. Later there appeared Turkic z -language tribes close to them, that is the earlier sound p was replaced by the sound z. On the issue of the language spoken by the Huns, Finnish scholars Castren and Ramstedt expressed the opinion that the Hunnic language was common to the ancestors of the Turks and Mongols. Pelho noted that it includes elements of an even more ancient layer [Gumilev L.N. Prince 1, p. 65]. Already modern linguists have proved that the Bulgarian-Saviri (Prachuvash) language is a relic Praturk language with elements of an admixture of East Iranian languages [Mason E.] and which was spoken as early as the 3rd 2nd millennium BC. e. the nomadic peoples of Asia until other groups of Turkic languages dropped out of it.
The formation of the Kazakh nationality took a long period. It began long before the Mongol-Tatar invasion and ended only in the XIV XV centuries. The basis of the Kazakh people was the most ancient tribes of Kazakhstan: the Uysuns, Kangles, Jalaira, Kipchaks, Naimani, Argyns and others. These tribes had a common territory, were close to each other in the level of development of the economy and culture, and spoke the same language
They occupied three economic and geographical areas called zhuzes. 1. The tribes that roamed in Semirechye were called Uly-Zhuz (senior zhuz). 2. The tribes that inhabited Central Kazakhstan were called the Ortho-Zhuz (Middle Zhuz). 3. The tribes of Western Kazakhstan were called kishi-zhuz (younger zhuz). The word zhuz means part, side. In the XV XVI centuries. names of ethnic groups Uzbeks, Kazakhs appeared in eastern sources. The first Kazakh khanate was about the khanate of Abulkhair the offspring of Genghis Khan, which occupied a vast territory. At the beginning of the XVIII century in Asia there was a strong state of Dzungaria. His warlike detachments attacked the Kazakh nomads and captured the eastern part of Kazakhstan. This forced the khan of the younger zhuz Abulkhair, who roamed on the left bank of the Urals (Yaik), in 1730 to appeal to the Russian government with a request to take the Kazakhs into custody and protect them from the attack of the Dzungars, to build a fortress city at the mouth of the Ori river. The voluntary joining of the younger zhuz to Russia was formalized by the letter of empress Anna Ivanovna of February 19, 1731, which stated that the Kazakhs were accepted into Russian citizenship at their request. In April 1731, a Russian embassy of 60 people, headed by Tevkelev, an experienced diplomat and an expert on Oriental languages, was sent to the khan headquarters of Abulkhair. The embassy was charged with the obligation to swear Kazakh elders. Abulkhair was strongly supported by the foremen of most of the genera of the younger zhuz. On October 10, 1731, they swore allegiance to Russian citizenship, pledging to remain faithful to it forever, to live in peace with Russian citizens (Bashkirs, Tatars, Kalmyks and Yaik Cossacks) and to ensure the safety of trade caravans passing through the Kazakh steppes.
The Bashkir ethnos was formed over many centuries, becoming part of the vast Turkic-Ugric ethnic ¬ world. The first written mention of the Bashkirs dates back to 922, although, of course, their history begins long ago before this date. The ambassador of the Arab caliph Ahmed Ibn-Fadlan, having made a trip this year to the Volga Bulgaria, saw and described, based on many observations, the nomadic tribes of the Bashgird, referring them to the Turkic peoples. The medieval life of the Bashkirs of the X XVI centuries, according to the greatest connoisseur of Bashkir history and ethnography, academician of Bashkiria R. G. Kuzeyev, must be considered in close connection with the history of the Pechenegs, Oguzes, Volga Bulgars, Kipchaks, Mongols, as well as the history of the Golden Horde and arising on its ruins of feudal khanates.Since the 16th century, when Bashkiria became part of the Russian state, the Bashkirs fell into the sphere of strong and multilateral influence of a completely different world, which is at a higher stage of development. en¬tsy in socio-economic, ethno-cultural and Politi-cal development, which led to significant shifts in is¬toricheskoy the fate of the nation, is the main soder¬zhaniem history Bashkiria next to Russia after prisoedi¬neniya century. Pursuing nomadic and semi-nomadic cattle breeding, the Bashkirs were located in the mountain-forest and steppe zones of the Southern Urals south of the river. Kama river basin. White. In the administrative respect, the bulk of the Bashkir population until the 30s of the 18th century was part of the Ufa district and a small part of Iset province. Bashkiria was divided into four parts the roads Nogai (south), Kazan (west), Osinskaya (north) and Siberian (east). The southern limit of the Bashkir nomads in the first third of the XVIII century was p. Samara According to P.I. Rychkov, in the middle of the 173s in Samara there was no Bashkir residency anywhere near. After the formation of the Orenburg province in 1744, almost the entire territory inhabited by the Bashkirs became a part of it.
The ancient nomads did not know the stall content of cattle and forage for future use, nor did they know the grass planting. Herds were constantly moved from place to place within the winter and summer pastures. The main means of production of nomads were land (pasture). An important means of production and their main social wealth was livestock sheep, goats, horses.
The cavalry of the nomads had great mobility and could, quickly concentrating their forces for attack, unexpectedly invade far into the territory of the countries in order to capture military production. That is why sedentary peoples were forced to build long walls to protect themselves from nomads. The largest of these structures is the Great Wall of China, built mainly in the III century. BC, in ancient Russia the so-called Zmiev shafts. These walls were quite an effective means of protection against nomadic raids, but against large invasions organized by large tribal unions, such walls could not serve as an insurmountable barrier. In the 4th century the most powerful of the tribes that lived on the northern and western borders of China were the Huns, Tibeto-Tangut and Syanbi. It was these tribes that began to invade China. The Huns, a nomadic people, developed in the II IV centuries. in the Urals from the Turkic-speaking Huns and local Ugrians and Sarmatians. The mass movement of the Huns to the west (from the 70s of the 4th century) gave an impetus to the so-called Great Migration of Nations. Subjugating a number of Germanic and other tribes, they headed a powerful alliance of tribes, which took devastating campaigns in many countries. The greatest power was achieved under Attila. The advance of the Huns to the 3rd west was stopped by their defeat in the Catalan Fields (451). After the death of Attila (453), the union of tribes broke up. Modern Tibetans (self-name peba), people in China (Tibet and neighboring areas), the Tibetan language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan (Sino-Tibetan) family of languages, Tibetan script dates back to Brahmi, one of the oldest varieties of Indian syllabic writing that arose in III in. BC. Tanguts are the people of the Tibetan-Burmese group (one of the two branches of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages, which includes: Tibetan, Burmese, Kachin and other languages). In the 10th century. created the state of Xi Xia in the north of China. After the defeat of the state by the Mongols assimilated, part of the Tanguts became part of the Tibetans of Qinghai province. The Tangut language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan family of languages, a verbal-syllabic hieroglyphic letter was introduced in 1036. The Syanbi are nomadic tribes that stood out from the union of Dong-hu tribes after defeating it in the 3rd century. BC e. hunnu. Wandered mainly in the territory of the modern autonomous region of China Inner Mongolia.