• Its status and termination date is easy to determine, it has a clearly defined beginning and an end;
• It is clear, since it might have been carried out before. The time and associated costs required for its implementation can be easily estimated using the experience gained during implementation of similar tasks in the past;
• It includes controllable jobs that do not depend on activities comprising other tasks;
• It is typically one continuous work sequence.
The time to complete each task within the project should be estimated. The time required to complete the task is a random value. Therefore, if this task is recurrent, the time will change for many times. This will be fair even for regular tasks. This variation is caused by the following factors:
• The qualifications level of employees involved;
• Using various equipment;
• Availability of materials;
• Force majeure (diseases, natural disasters, accidents, rotation, etc.)
Such events may occur, but it is impossible to predict them when implementing a specific project or a task. However, they should be taken into consideration. To do this, one can use the critical path evaluation method.The cost of each assignment should be also estimated. There are four main cost categories (although organization’s chart of accounts may be used) to determine for each assignment:
• Work force;
• Materials;
• Other direct costs (business trips, telephone, contractual services);
• Indirect costs (overhead).
The next step is to determine the sequence of assignments within the project. The assignments of simple projects may be carried out one by one. Another way is to analyze all the assignments and determine which ones are to be completed before starting the others. Such an analysis reveals the order in which several assignments can be carries out simultaneously. The critical path method (MCP) determines the sequence of simultaneous assignments that allows completing a project in a timely manner. Identifying critical assignments, determining the critical path and constructing a priority diagram is to provide graphical presentation of the project. This requires mastering a few simple charting rules. An assignment is the main ordered “unit of analysis”. Tasks are represented on the diagram as rectangles, called “assignment nodes”. The symbols depicted in the rectangle describe the temporary assignment properties. Some of them describe the assignment characteristics (for example, the assignment number), while others are assignment associated estimates (ES, EF, LS, LF). The project time is the longest time path in the diagram. The longest sequence of assignments is called the critical path. As long as the assignments within the critical path are completed duly, the project is within the schedule. The four calculated parameters (ES, LS, EF, and LF) for each assignment node are to be determined. The following calculated values will be used to determine the project time and the critical path:
Early start (ES) is the earliest point in time when all the previous assignments have been completed and this assignment can be started. The ES for the first assignment is time period 0.
Early finish (EF) is the ES time plus the estimated time to complete the assignment. The ES time for an assignment preceded by one task is the EF time for this previous task. The ES time for assignments that are preceded by two or more assignments is the longest EF time for these previous assignments.
Late start (LS) and Late Finish (LF) are the latest points in time when the assignment can be started (LS) or finished (LF) without increasing the time to terminate the entire project.
To estimate these points, one should move the Backward Pass. First, the LF time for the last assignment in the diagram is taken as the EF time of the assignment considered. The LS time for a given assignment is equal to its LF time minus the estimated time to complete this assignment. The LF time for all preceding assignments is the shortest LS time for all assignments for which the assignment considered is preceding. It is necessary to calculate one more value, called the time reserve for the assignment.
Time reserve is an allowable value of delay in the start or finish of the assignment, which does not cause a delay when carrying out the entire project. The time reserve is a mathematical difference LS – ES (or LF – EF). The definition of a critical path is a sequence of assignments having a zero reserve.
Terms of reference is a transition from the planning (definition, drawing up a plan) to the implementation (organization, control, termination). As shown later, the terms of reference is the foundation for internal consistency of the project providing the basis for all administrative decisions. Let’s consider the terms of reference, paying focusing on its parts and their use as controls. The terms of reference of the project is to receive:
• A description of the challenge, the general approach to solve it and the expected benefits resulting from it;
• Full description of the project assignment, time and resources required;
• A detailed description is required for the administration to decide whether to proceed to the stages of the project;
• A dynamic tool for the project manager and the project team to be used for decision making throughout the project;
• Reference documentation for administrative control;
• A means to familiarize new members of the project team with the project and prepare for its implementation;
• A report for representatives of your organization who are not involved in the project directly, but should be aware of it.
An assignment is an obvious key document in the project. The terms of reference should be understandably written and used by the leadership, the project managers, the members of the project team, and other managers, as well as specialists who need this information. The terms of reference consists of:
• Project name;
• Project objectives;
• Project Manager;
• Project owner or stakeholders;
• Project team.
• Assignments consist of three subsections: the number, a short but meaningful title, and a description. It should contain specific statement activities to be carried out.
• Estimated start and termination dates;
• Project implementation schedule;
• Project estimate summarized at the assignment level;
• Metrics and criteria for achieving goals;
• Additional terms.
All projects involving financial aspects of profit may require a thorough assessment of the project impact on income and expenses, before the project is approved.
Schedule and progress is a chart indicating the start and finish dates and the planned duration for each work package. This schedule and progress is usually depicted as a Gantt chart and network graphs specifying the logical sequence of the execution of work packages. The planning process group includes the following processes:
• Developing a project management plan;
• Content management plan;
• Collecting requirements;
• Definition of content;
• Creating a hierarchical operational structure;
• Developing a schedule management plan;
• Definition of operations;
• Determining the sequence of operations;
• Evaluation of operational resource;
• Estimation of the operational duration;
• Scheduling;
• Developing a cost management plan;
• Estimating;
• Budgeting;
• Quality planning;
• Development of a human resources management plan;
• Communication planning;
• Risk management planning;
• Risk identification;
• Qualitative risk analysis;
• Quantitative risk analysis;
• Risk response planning;
• Procurement planning;
• Development of a stakeholder management plan.
Executing
This phase deals with the main project activities, i.e. writing the code, erecting the building etc. Following the developed plans leads to the previously defined content of the project, and the selected metrics are controlled. In the second part of this phase, the product is tested, it is checked for compliance with the customers and stakeholders’ requirements. During testing, the product deficiencies are identified and fixed.
This phase includes the allocation of responsibilities to carry out the assignments. Creating an effective group is both: an art and a science. To create an effective project team, one should consider not only the technical qualifications of the project manager and the members of the project team, but also their critical roles and interpersonal relationship. The selection of a project manager and team members will not be perfect – there is always a risk in any HR decision. The main goal when choosing a project manager is to appoint an experienced and competent person who is able to get the final result duly and meet the project requirements with the resources available. From this point of view, all the basic qualities of an effective project manager can be attributed to one of the following five categories:
• Education and experience;
• Leadership and strategic thinking;
• Technical competence;
• Ability to work with people;
• Proven managerial skills.
The choice of project team depends on the following factors:
• The objectives and goals of the project;
• The nature of the activities to be performed;
• the qualifications required for hiring, assigning, obtaining authority, control, communication and performing the required activities at each stage of the project;
• Availability of appropriate personnel in the organization where the project will be carried out.
It is important for the project manager and the members of the project team to know that the newly formed teams go through go through the five stages of team development which are:
• Forming stage takes place when the team first meets each other, breaks ice build relations.
• Storming stage is natural and not avoidable. The members of the team test each other, establish a sense of boundaries and trust.
• Norming stage implies developing the norms of behavior and acceptable unwritten rules obeyed by all members. Team members know what to expect from each other in the process.
• Performing stage takes place when the project team is ready to implement the project.
• Adjourning is the last stage when project is ending and the team members are moving off into different directions.
Reintegration of the project member is the process of introduction / withdrawal of the project member to / from the project. The project manager prepares the re-integration of employees (conducts personal interviews with staff and their line management) upon termination of the project. Tasks of the project manager are:
• Monitoring the development of the team members;
• Training project participants;
• Provision of project instructions, documentation;
• Reintegration of new or returned team members;
• Returning the project participants to their units or to the line manager upon the project termination.
The project participants should be informed about their reintegration. Staff reintegration plan is a consistent withdrawal of personnel from the project. The goal of HR management is to create and maintain a highly efficient project team. Communication skills, group cohesion, ability to resolve conflicts and conducting effective meetings can accelerate the transition to executing. The project manager should always remain these stages under review and strive to reach executing as soon as possible. The performing group includes the following processes:
• Leadership and management of project;
• Quality assurance;
• Recruitment of project team;
• Development of the project team;
• Project team management;
• Communication management;
• Procurement;
• Stakeholder management.
Monitoring & Controlling
Regularly evaluates project progress and monitors to detect deviations from the project management plan, and, if required, take corrective actions to achieve the objectives of the project.
Monitoring also involves defining and creating a reporting system to provide information on the project status at specified points in its life cycle. The reports are supposed to not only reflect the chronology of events, but also provide early warning of cases and situations indicating deviations from the plan.
Monitoring is an integral part of project management and transparently present at all stages. The main objective of this phase is to monitor the status of selected metrics for compliance with the customer and stakeholders’ requirements. Identified product deficiencies are addressed during the project implementation phase.
As soon as the situations requiring changes to the work plan has been detected, the project manager should use the mechanisms for making changes that are part of the project management process.
Arranging effective project meetings will take more time than any other task. The skills of conducting meetings and ensuring their attendance are to be mastered. First, a question arises: whether a meeting is needed. If yes, what for? If not, how to get staff aware? Is it possible to solve this problem at one meeting, or via a letter, written reference, and phone call? If a meeting is required, the following recommendations should be followed:
Preparation
• Set several achievable goals for the meeting. Formulating of these goals should be concise and precise.
• Select key participants for the meeting; exclude employees whose presence is not required.
• Choose a meeting time and venue that meets the participants’ requirements.
• Prepare an agenda and bring it to the participants’ attention before the meeting.
• Include agenda items to be considered, and expected or required outcomes.
Conducting:
• Start duly.
• Instruct someone to take meeting minutes.
• Review the agenda with each participant before the meeting ends.
• Introduce participants to each other.
• Follow the agenda. Do not deviate from the topic.
• Thank all speakers at the meeting.
• Finish the meeting with the main decisions made, the main outcomes, and provide detailed information about the next meeting.
Regardless the completeness and accuracy of the plan, there will be events having hard-to-control-consequences. Such events will occur at the most inappropriate time (as per Murphy’s Law) and the success of the whole project will depend on them. The project manager must track the project status, in particular the state of the managerial triangle:
• Scope of work, quality – whether everything is developed in accordance with the work plan, or there is anything missing?
• Deadlines – whether the project’s deadlines are met.
• Money – whether the planned budget, outflow, and capital inflow are observed?
The algorithm of project control is:
• Set targets;
• Get project status and current indicators;
• Compare plan with fact;
• Set the deviation, trends and influence on the project objectives;
• Modify the plan and/or set measures to mitigate interferences leading to a delay.