13
Интервью, взятое автором у Джеймса Уотсона ( 4) 26 июля 2018 г.
14
John Gribbin, In Search of Schrödinger's Cat: Quantum Physics and Reality (New York: Bantam, 1984).
15
Шрёдингер разделил Нобелевскую премию по физике с Полем Дираком в 1933 г. См.: "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1933," https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1933/summary/.
16
Erwin Schrödinger, What Is Life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell, with Mind and Matter and Autobiographical Sketches (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
17
N. W. Timofeeff-Ressovsky, K. G. Zimmer, and M. Delbrück, "Uber die Natur der Genmutation und der Genstruktur: Nachrichten von der Gessellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen" (On the Nature of Gene Mutation and Structure), Biologie, Neue Folge 1, no. 13 (1935): 189245. Среди ученых, не согласившихся с концепцией апериодического кристалла Дельбрюка и Шрёдингера, были Лайнус Полинг и Макс Перуц. См.: Linus Pauling, "Schrödinger's Contribution to Chemistry and Biology," Max Perutz, "Erwin Schrödinger's What Is Life? and Molecular Biology," in C. W. Kilmister, ed., Schrödinger: Centenary Celebration of a Polymath (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 22533 и 23451.
18
J. T. Randall, "An Experiment in Biophysics," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 208, no. 1092 (1951): 124; Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2013), 77; Robert Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1974), 32633.
19
Lily E. Kay, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Robert E. Kohler, Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 19001945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
20
Watson, The Double Helix.
21
Matthew Cobb, "Happy 100th Birthday, Francis Crick (19162004)," Why Evolution Is True blog, https://whyevolutionistrue.wordpress.com/2016/06/08/happy100th-birthday-francis-crick-19162004/.
22
Интервью, взятое автором у Джеймса Уотсона ( 1) 23 июля 2018 г.
23
Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, "The Astonishing Francis Crick," Perception 33 (2004): 115154; Rupert Shortt, "Idle Components: An Argument Against Richard Dawkins," Times Literary Supplement, no. 6089 (December 13, 2019): 1213.
24
Howard Markel, "Who's On First?: Medical Discoveries and Scientific Priority," New England Journal of Medicine 351 (2004): 279294.
25
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: John Murray, 1859), 13.
26
Возможно, садов было два: меньшего размера, описанный выше, и еще один по южную сторону от ворот во внутренний двор, рядом с черным ходом. Robin Marantz Henig, The Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Modern Genetics (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2009), 2136.
27
A. E. Crew, "Reginald Crundall Punnett 18751967," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 13 (1967): 30926.
28
Curriculum vitae, Gregor Mendel. Mendel Museum, Masarykova Univerzita, https://mendelmuseum.muni.cz/en/g-j-mendel/zivotopis.
29
Gregor Mendel, "Versuche über Plflanzenhybriden," Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn, Bd. IV für das Jahr 1865, Abhandlungen (Experiments in Plant Hybridization. Read at the February 8 and March 8, 1865, Meetings of the Brünn Natural History Society) (1866), 347; William Bateson and Gregor Mendel, Mendel's Principles of Heredity: A Defense, with a Translation of Mendel's Original Papers on Hybridisation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
30
Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America," in Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg, eds., The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 325.
31
Gunther S. Stent, "Prematurity and Uniqueness in Scientific Discovery," Scientific American 227, no. 6 (1972): 8493.
32
Даже этот вывод был оспорен; некоторые историки утверждают, что фон Шермак не вполне понял работу Менделя, а Спиллмана зачастую не упоминают даже в скобках. См.: Augustine Brannigan, "The Reification of Mendel," Social Studies of Science 9, no. 4 (1979): 42354; Malcolm Kottler, "Hugo De Vries and the Rediscovery of Mendel's Laws," Annals of Science 36 (1979): 51738; Randy Moore, "The Re-Discovery of Mendel's Work," Bioscene 27, no. 2 (2001): 1324.
33
R. A. Fisher, "Has Mendel's Work Been Rediscovered?," Annals of Science 1 (1936): 11537; Bob Montgomerie and Tim Birkhead, "A Beginner's Guide to Scientific Misconduct," ISBE Newsletter 17, no. 1 (2005): 1621; Daniel L. Hartl and Daniel J. Fairbanks, "Mud Sticks: On the Alleged Falsification of Mendel's Data," Genetics 175 (2007): 97579; Allan Franklin, A. W. F. Edwards, Daniel J. Fairbanks, Daniel L. Hartl, and Teddy Seidenfeld, eds., Ending the MendelFisher Controversy (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2008); Gregory Radick, "Beyond the 'MendelFisher Controversy,' " Science 350, no. 6257 (2015): 15960.
34
"Wilhelm His, Sr. (18311904), Embryologist and Anatomist," editorial, Journal of the American Medical Association 187, no. 1 (January 4, 1964): 58; Elan D. Louis and Christian Stapf, "Unraveling the Neuron Jungle: The 18791886 Publications by Wilhelm His on the Embryological Development of the Human Brain," Archives of Neurology 58, no. 11 (2001): 193235.
35
Переплетение марлевой ткани отличается тем, что уточные нити расположены попарно и пересекаются до и после каждой нити основы, надежно удерживая уток на месте. Интересно, что эта структура напоминает двойную спираль. A. Klose, "Victor von Bruns und die sterile Verbandswatte," ("Victor Bruns and the Sterile Cotton Wool"), Ausstellungskatalog des Stadtsmuseums Tübinger Katalogue 77 (2007): 3646; D. J. Haubens, Victor von Bruns (18121883) and his contributions to plastic and reconstructive surgery," Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 75, no. 1 (January 1985): 12027.
36
Ralf Dahm, "Discovering DNA: Friedrich Miescher and the Early Years of Nucleic Acid Research," Human Genetics 122 (2008): 56581; Ralf Dahm, "Friedrich Miescher and the Discovery of DNA," Developmental Biology 278, no. 2 (2005): 27488; Ralf Dahm, "The Molecule from the Castle Kitchen," Max Planck Research, 2004, 5055; Ulf Lagerkvist, DNA Pioneers and Their Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 3567.
37
Horace W. Davenport, "Physiology, 18501923: The View from Michigan," Physiologist 25, suppl. 1 (1982): 1100.
38
Friedrich Miescher, "Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung der Eiterzellen" (On the Chemical Composition of Pus Cells), Medicinisch-chemische Untersuchungen 4 (1871): 44160; Felix Hoppe-Seyler, "Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung des Eiter" (On the Chemical Composition of Pus), Medicinisch-chemische Untersuchungen 4 (1871): 486501.
39
S. B. Weineck, D. Koelblinger, and T. Kiesslich, "Medizinische Habilitation im deutschsprachigen Raum: Quantitative Untersuchung zu Inhalt und Ausgestaltung der Habilitationsrichtlinien" (Medical Habilitation in German-Speaking Countries: Quantitative Assessment of Content and Elaboration of Habilitation Guidelines), Der Chirurg 86, no. 4 (April 2015): 35565; Theodor Billroth, The Medical Sciences in the German Universities: A Study in the History of Civilization (New York: Macmillan, 1924).
40
Freidrich Miescher, "Die Spermatozoen einiger Wirbeltiere: Ein Beitrag zur Histochemie" (The Spermatazoa of Some Vertebrates: A Contribution to Histochemistry), Verhandlungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel 6 (1874): 138208; Dahm, "Discovering DNA"; Ulf Lagerkvist, DNA Pioneers and Their Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 3567.
41
Dahm, "Discovering DNA," 574.
42
Описание истории евгеники взято из одной из моих книг, а именно: Howard Markel, The Kelloggs: The Battling Brothers of Battle Creek (New York: Pantheon, 2017), 298321.
43
Гальтон также противопоставлял воспитание природе. Он и Чарльз Дарвин приходятся внуками английскому врачу, натуралисту, изобретателю и поэту Эразму Дарвину. См.: Francis Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development (London: Macmillan, 1883), 17, 2425, 44; Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1869); Francis Galton, "On Men of Science: Their Nature and Their Nurture," Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain 7 (1874): 22736.
44
Howard Markel, Quarantine: East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 17982; Howard Markel, When Germs Travel: Six Major Epidemics That Invaded America Since 1900 and the Fears They Unleashed (New York: Pantheon, 2004), 3436; Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972), 87119.
45
Государственный закон США 68139, принятый 68-м Конгрессом США; John Higham, Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 18601925 (New York: Atheneum, 1963), 152; Barbara M. Solomon, Ancestors and Immigrants: A Changing New England Tradition (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956); Markel, Quarantine, 112, 6667, 7598, 13352, 16378, 18185; Markel, When Germs Travel, 910, 3536, 56, 8789, 9697, 1023.
46
Charles E. Rosenberg, "Charles Benedict Davenport and the Irony of American Eugenics," in No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Press, 1976), 8997; Garland E. Allen, "The Eugenics Record Office at Cold Spring Harbor, 19101940: An Essay in Institutional History," OSIRIS (second series) 2 (1986): 22564; Oscar Riddle, "Biographical Memoir of Charles B. Davenport, 18661944," Biographical Memoirs, vol. 25 (Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 1947).
47
Джеймс Уотсон неоднократно высказывался о том, что представители черной расы генетически менее развиты интеллектуально, нежели белые. Одно из таких заявлений имело место в передаче канала PBS из цикла «Американские мастера». См.: Amy Harmon, "For James Watson, the Price Was Exile," New York Times, January 1, 2019, D1; "Decoding Watson," American Masters, PBS, January 2, 2019, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/american-masters-decoding-watson-full-film/10923/?button=fullepisode.
48
Rosenberg, No Other Gods, 91.
49
Charles B. Davenport, "Report of the Committee on Eugenics," American Breeders Magazine 1 (1910): 129.
50
Письмо Ч. Давенпорта Мэдисон Грант. 7 апреля 1922 г., материалы Чарльза Давенпорта, Американское философское общество, Филадельфия. См.: Rosenberg, No Other Gods, 9596.
51
Madison Grant, The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1916); Jacob H. Landman, Human Sterilization: The History of the Sexual Sterilization Movement (New York: Macmillan, 1932); Harry H. Laughlin, Eugenical Sterilization in the United States (Chicago: Municipal Court of Chicago, 1932); Paul Lombardo, Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010); Adam Cohen, Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck (New York: Penguin, 2016); Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (New York: Knopf, 1985), 96112. Труднее сосчитать представителей сексуальных меньшинств, инвалидов, цыган и других «неполноценных», убитых согласно идеологии гитлеровского режима. См.: U.S. Holocaust Museum, "Documenting the Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution," https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/documenting-numbers-of-victims-of-the-holocaust-and-nazi-persecution.
52
Archibald Garrod, Garrod's Inborn Factors in Disease: Including an annotated facsimile reprint of The Inborn Factors in Disease (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989); Thomas Hunt Morgan, "The Theory of the Gene," American Naturalist 51 (1917): 51344; T. H. Morgan, A. H. Sturtevant, H. J. Muller, and C. B. Bridges, The Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity, revised ed. (New York: Henry Holt, 1922); T. H. Morgan, "Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila," Science 32, no. 812 (1910): 12022; T. H. Morgan and C. B. Bridges, Sex-linked Inheritance in Drosophila (Washington, DC: Carnegie Institution of Washington/Press of Gibson Brothers, 1916). Пример популяционной генетики того времени см.: Raymond Pearl, Modes of Research in Genetics (New York: Macmillan, 1915).
53
Matt Ridley, Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (New York: Harper Perennial, 2006), 33.
54
George W. Corner, A History of the Rockefeller Institute, 19011953: Origins and Growth (New York: Rockefeller Institute Press, 1964); E. R. Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979).
55
Howard Markel, "The Principles and Practice of Medicine: How a Textbook, a Former Baptist Minister, and an Oil Tycoon Shaped the Modern American Medical and Public Health IndustrialResearch Complex," Journal of the American Medical Association 299, no. 10 (2008): 1199201; Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller (New York: Random House, 1998), 47079.
56
René Dubos, The Professor, the Institute and DNA (New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1976), 10, 16179.
57
Robert D. Grove and Alice M. Hetzel, Vital Statistics in the United States, 19401960, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, National Center for Health Statistics (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1968), 92.
58
Frederick Griffith, "The Significance of Pneumococcal Types," Journal of Hygiene 27, no. 2 (1928): 11359.
59
M. H. Dawson, "The transformation of pneumococcal types. I. The Conversion of R forms of Pneumococcus into S forms of the homologous type," Journal of Experimental Medicine 51, no. 1 (1930): 99122; M. H. Dawson, "The Transformation of Pneumococcal Types. II. The interconvertibility of type-specific S pneumococci," Journal of Experimental Medicine 51, no. 1 (1930): 12347; M. H. Dawson and R. H. Sia, "In vitro transformation of Pneumococcal types. I. A technique for inducing transformation of Pneumococcal types in vitro," Journal of Experimental Medicine 54, no. 5 (1931): 68199; M. H. Dawson and R. H. Sia, "In vitro transformation of Pneumococcal types. II. The nature of the factor responsible for the transformation of Pneumococcal types," Journal of Experimental Medicine 54, no. 5 (1931): 70110; J. L. Alloway, "The transformation in vitro of R Pneumococci into S forms of different specific types by the use of filtered Pneumococcus extracts," Journal of Experimental Medicine 55 No. 1 (1932): 9199; J. L. Alloway, "Further observations on the use of Pneumococcus extracts in effecting transformation of type in vitro," Journal of Experimental Medicine 57, no. 2 (1933): 26578.
60
Эвери выдвигали на Нобелевскую премию тринадцать раз: в 1932, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1938, 1939, 1942, 1945, 1946, 1947 и 1948 гг., но безрезультатно. См.: "List of Individuals Proposing Oswald Avery and others for the Nobel Prize (19321948)," Oswald Avery Collection, Profiles in Science, U.S. National Library of Medicine, https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/access/CCAAFV.pdf#xml=https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov:443/pdfhighlight?uid=CCAAFV&query=%28Nobel%2C%20Avery%29.